A case study or scenario is a metaphor.  It is an example that can guide an informal but focused discussion among two, three or more people who have knowledge and understanding of a specific workplace situation – which could be a need, problem, opportunity or challenge.

 The objective of this discussion is an improved understanding of either the situation, or options available for the ‘next action’.

 A case study is not a case history – a case history is a detailed and factual record of a specific situation or set of circumstances.

 A scenario need not be factual – but it does need to be believable.

 The need, problem, opportunity or challenge could be:

• agreeing on the value of a particular action or behaviour,
• responding to an unexpected event,
• assessing risk,
• encouraging innovation,
• testing the best language and style for a safety procedure,
• remedying a deficiency.

 In preparation, ensure that:

1. the case study or scenario is prepared with a specific situation – and a specific group of people – in mind, and that a copy is provided for each person in the group (maximum of four brief paragraphs),
2. nothing is written into the case study or scenario that includes or infers any factual details of persons, time, place, incident or experience,
3. each person to participate in the structured discussion has adequate knowledge and understanding of the situation to be discussed with the aid of the case study or scenario,
4. privacy and confidentiality are protected,
5. respect is shown for all involved with or affected by the discussion, and
6. the case study or scenario is clearly presented, and readily connected with the situation.

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The absence of timely, explicit and formal or official clarification allows assumptions to flourish, inviting inappropriate and perhaps negative or defensive behaviour.  This can result in minimal or inappropriate performance.  Imagine an employee undergoing performance appraisal in the absence of role clarity; the supervisor simply – and wrongly – assuming the employee should have known what was expected.  The fault here is with the supervisor.

 An assumption can be made in relation to:

• the nature or extent of power or authority;
• the right of possession or ownership;
• benefits of eligibility or status; or
• how, and to what extent, an individual or group is expected to act, react or take control. 

 Where there is no clarity in a business or organisation as to individual or group roles, responsibilities, accountabilities, authority, and even titles – there is potential for misunderstanding, conflict or competitiveness; and for loss of commitment, apathy or a constant state of resignation.

 Where there is no clarity as to boundaries or limitations, there will be those who will assume there is no boundary, and those who will assume a safe and secure boundary: it’s likely that neither will be right – leading to negative outcomes: 

• far better that clear boundaries are set – or at least drafted as a basis for adjustment or confirmation.

 Where there is no clarity as to realistic expectations, there will be those who will assume greater than likely outcomes, and those who will assume less than likely outcomes: it’s again likely that either will be satisfied with the outcome:

• far better to collectively gauge an expectation or outcome based on  previous experience, or preferably, on available facts. 

 Examples of wise and acceptable assumptions include:

• that each and every person is unique – therefore surprises will happen
• that work-place behaviour is a combination of role clarity and personality
• that one should take care in expressing an opinion
• that safety, security and quality depend on clear, explicit, adequate and appropriate instructions

 Examples of unwise and unacceptable assumptions include:

• that the behaviour of people of a particular culture, gender, background, age, educational  status, religion or socio-economic status, etc., is predictable and pre-determined
• that one’s own opinion is always better or more important than another’s opinion
• that volunteer (unpaid) effort is of a higher status and quality than the effort of paid staff
• that seniority equates superiority
• that others will know your intention or requirement without any explanation

Scenario 1:    An extract from chapter 1 of my current e-book – My Spiritual Journey as an Independent Consultant

 Participant entry and exit maturity levels in training courses

• ‘entry maturity’ is the level of maturity with the course topic or theme brought by each course participant as they enter the training room at commencement of the course: ‘maturity’ is a combination of confidence, competence and comfort with the course topic or theme.
•  Participants whose entry maturity was low would drain the group energy: participants whose entry maturity was high would contribute to the group energy, and participants whose entry maturity was uncertain would challenge the group energy.  Together, these three levels of entry maturity would create the group’s collective consciousness.  And I could rely on the collective consciousness being an amalgam of the entry maturity level of all participants – at least for the first hour of each course.
•  My tools and methods for adaptation needed to respond to the group’s collective consciousness in each training course.  (Trainers often refer to their own connection with a group’s collective consciousness as ‘having their antennae tuned into the group’ or ‘using their intuition’ to check the response level of a group throughout a course.)
•  The course topic or theme would have brought the participants to the room and given them the context, the purpose, the framework for attendance.  My responsibility was to ensure that my notes and the course format were adequate to satisfy their immediate need for confidence or competency or comfort in relation to the topic or theme.  
•  At the end of a course, individual participants would have achieved or acquired an ‘exit maturity’ – desirably a higher level of maturity (ie competence, confidence and/or comfort) with the course topic or theme that they would take back to their workplace or private life for use, application or reference.

 It’s an unwise trainer or consultant who will assume an entry maturity:

• the first task is to assess a level of maturity that presents a starting point from which to move toward an appropriate exit maturity
• the entry maturity is set by the participants – not by the trainer or consultant 
• and equally, the exit maturity is determined by the participants and facilitated by the trainer or consultant.

 Scenario 2:    An extract from page 85 of my book, One Man Show – the Smallest of small business, featuring my, and Shakespeare’s, experiences as sole operators

 Be wary of making assumptions

• business methods and systems can and almost certainly will change and improve:    don’t assume that your current business methods and systems will continue to be adequate, appropriate or effective
•  your product or service may have an established market:   don’t assume that you don’t need to continue marketing, improving your product or service, or createnew markets, products or services
•  your customer needs, interests and aspirations may change, or your product or service may lose favour as competitors enter your market-place:    don’t assume your customers’ needs, interests or aspirations – only they can keep you informed about these
•  your suppliers– build strong relationships with them, monitor their performance and reliability, recommend them to others if you are satisfied with their service, and don’t hesitate to change a supplier who proves to be unreliable or to cease adding value to your One Man Show:   don’t assume that a supplier who has proved to be reliable will always be reliable, or that you will always be a priority client or customer – give as much care and attention to your suppliers as you do to your customers.
•  your market-place may be geographic or interest/practice-based – keep in touch with who else is offering products or services similar to, or compatible with, your own; and don’t rely on just one market-place:    don’t assume that your market-place will retain its interest in your product or service, and definitely don’t assume that there is no competitor waiting to see how well your product or service is received before either copying or improving it with her/his own product or service

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 Quality is the degree or standard of excellence, especially a high standard:   the totality of the attributes of a product, component, program or service that meets the requirements of the buyer, owner or end user.

 The basis of quality is that there are procedures and systems in place to ensure:

1. consistent and replicable standards,
2. consistency and replicability of improved standards,
3. assessment and resourcing of identified risk factors, and
4. avoidance or management of risk.

A risk factor is present where there is likelihood that a product or component will have to be:

• re-worked – requiring further attention and therefore involving further cost and inconvenience, or
• replaced – resulting in loss, wastage or inconvenience.

 A risk factor is present where there is likelihood that a service or program will be:

• ineffective – unable to achieve the purpose for which it has been designed
• inefficient – result in or contribute to an unwise use of resources, or
• sub-standard – failing to meet or comply with advertised or required quality or standard of delivery, process or outcome. 

A Quality system is a series of actions designed to ensure consistency in approach, process and output.

 The outcome of a quality system is that the organisation has:

• a sound basis for applying the basic philosophy of quality assurance, a clear set of guidelines for quality systems and processes, a means of satisfying contractual obligations, and readily available guidance and direction.

Advantages of a quality system:

1. a sound base for applying the basic philosophy of quality assurance, plus
2. a clear set of guidelines for quality systems and processes, plus
3. a means of satisfying contractual obligations, plus
4. readily available guidance and direction for monitoring systems and controls, resulting in 
5. a uniform initial approach to quality

Quality control is the internal method of avoiding a deviation from the desired or required situation, or the method of altering or changing the situation to achieve the desired or required situation.   A key factor in any system is ‘control’, and there are two sorts of control:

1. the maintenance of an existing situation, bringing it back to normal when it deviates, and
2. the introduction of change into a situation, whether by making alterations to the existing situation or by creating a new situation

Quality assurance is the result of quality control, in that there is certainty as to consistency in approach, process and output through the quality system.  This includes ensuring that all repetitive functions or activities are consistently performed or carried out to the same desired or required standard.  An audit or assessment process is the usual method of quality assurance.

Continuous quality improvement indicates an active commitment throughout the organisation to improving – rather than simply maintaining – the desired or required degree or standard of excellence.  The 3 basic stages are: 

• increasing your organisation’s knowledge and understanding of stakeholder expectations and requirements 
• improving the design, so that the mix of features afforded by your organisation’s products, components, programs or services more closely match stakeholder expectations and requirements, and 
• improving your organisation’s ability to consistently perform, function and operate more closely to the design.

 Now, let’s move to the relationship:

 Continuous quality improvement is the objective – and it’s the simple rule first things first.  As with anything, there has to be a starting point, a place to begin.

1. The starting point – the first thing – is the presence of a quality system.   
2. With a quality system in place, it’s then possible to have quality assurance.
3. With a quality assurance system in place, then – and only then – can you achieve continuous quality improvement.

 And the tool to achieve continuous quality improvement is quality control.

 Without a quality system, quality assurance is at best a guess, with no basis for continuous quality improvement.

 Without quality control, there is no connection between the quality system and quality assurance.

Each person working within an organisation is responsible for the quality of their own work – and for continuous improvement in the quality of their work.  If everyone is to be responsible for the quality of their own work, each person needs to know:

• the needs, aspirations and interests of their clients, customers or service-users, and the needs of the people they work most closely with, ie both internal and external ‘customers’
• the quality of research, planning and delivery required to achieve the agreed standard of product, component, program or service, and the quality of interaction with the people their internal and external customers
• how to consistently plan and deliver products, components, programs or services to the desired level of quality, and consistently monitor the quality of their interaction with others
• how to measure the quality of their own performance, and
• how to make improvements in the quality of (i) their performance, (ii) their research, planning and delivery, and (iii) their interaction with others.

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You’ll never waste your time in a meeting again – as long as you satisfy these 8 requirements.  But firstly, let’s agree that any meeting needs to have a purpose.

Any person can too easily fall into the ‘meeting habit’… calling or attending a meeting whenever a decision is needed, or a problem or opportunity arises – or whenever another person suggests that ‘we need – or let’s call – a meeting about this’.

Meetings should not be held for the sake of holding meetings!

Time spent in meetings is an investment ONLY when the clear and agreed purpose of the meeting is achieved.

Keeping a check on the number and length of meetings is a major tool in:

• maintaining individual job satisfaction,
• ensuring individual and team effectiveness,
• managing people,
• reducing costs, and
• increasing organisational effectiveness.

People can easily be trapped into thinking that meetings are the best or only way to reach decisions or exchange information. However, meetings take people away from their day‑to‑day duties and interrupt work practices or routines.

Meetings can also impose additional work which may have little or no relevance or benefit to the person’s role in the organisation, be it a paid or unpaid role.

Meeting attendance should be determined by measuring the immediate and practical benefit of attendance.  Selective meeting attendance will then be a contributor to the person’s role and function – rather than an interruption.

Where people are willing to give up their private time or to interrupt their day‑to‑day duties, it is easy to ignore the value and importance of time.

Check these 8 Meeting Requirements before scheduling or attending any meeting:

Meeting Requirement No. 1.

Every meeting, no matter how large or small should have a specific purpose and outcome.

Meeting Requirement No. 2.

All people involved with any meeting should be convinced that the meeting is necessary.

Meeting Requirement No. 3.

People whose attendance is necessary for the success of a meeting must be available:  everyone should know the purpose, venue, time to start and finish, agenda, procedure and desired outcomes before the meeting.

Meeting Requirement No. 4.

All information required to ensure that the purpose of the meeting will be achieved should be available to attendees in time to be read before the meeting begins.

Meeting Requirement No. 5.

The agenda should be agreed to – and the duration of meeting confirmed – at the start of the meeting.  If not already in place, a chairperson and note‑taker (or minute-taker)  should be appointed.

Meeting Requirement No. 6.

When any decision is made, it should be noted or minuted clearly and expressed correctly.

Meeting Requirement No. 7.

Each decision should be examined as to ‑

• action/s required,
• any and all costs involved,
• person/s responsible for each action required,
• a deadline for each action, and
• how and when the responsible person/s will report, and to whom.

Meeting Requirement No. 8.

Each person present at a meeting is responsible for the quality of that meeting:  this responsibility does not rest solely with the chairperson.

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 Whatever the nature of your service, the process of service planning is critical to the success of your organisation or business.

 Integrated service planning requires adequate representation of key organisational functions in order to meet, or exceed, the expectations and requirements of your client, service-user or customer. 

 Key functions are major areas of responsibility – both service-specific and corporate – as these will impact on either or both:

a)    preparation of a service for delivery, and

b)    delivery of that service to the client, service-user or customer.

 Integrated service planning enables you to separately cost, budget and schedule the activities associated with preparation of a service, and those associated with delivery of that service.

 My recommended tool is Total Quality Management, which is defined as:

• the extent to which your organisation or business is able to identify client, service-user or customer needs or expectations, ie quality of research, and
• the extent to which the total unit design of your service meets or exceeds such  needs or expectations, ie quality of design, and
• the extent to which your organisation or business is able to ensure a consistent quality of service delivery, ie quality of conformance.

You’ll easily see that quality of research and quality of design are directly related to the preparation stage: and that quality of conformance is directly related to the delivery stage.

 Integrated Service Planning can avoid:

• misinterpretation or misunderstanding of responsibilities for service preparation, delivery and reliability,
• problems, mistakes – even disasters – in relation to costs, budgets or schedules,
• unwise decisions which can contribute to service deficiencies, complaints or loss of contracts, and 
• misuse or abuse of authority by those with responsibility for either service planning and service delivery.

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It is an established business practice in both the nonprofit and commercial sectors.  Partnerships between independent and autonomous nonprofit organisations – and between such nonprofit organisations and commercial entities – can be informal, formal or legal:

•  a partnership can be a collaborative arrangement for a group of nonprofit organisations to achieve something that they couldn’t do – or do sufficiently well – alone.
• a partnership can be a formal arrangement, with one party fulfilling the role of lead agency, eg where the partnership presents a collaborative proposal, tender or submission.
• a partnership can be a preliminary arrangement leading to the creation of a new legal entity, with the participating organisations being the only members of the new legal entity.
• a partnership can be formed with the intention of a larger nonprofit organisation merging one or more smaller nonprofit organisations into its own legal and organisational structures: this would entail voluntary winding-up by the smaller nonprofit organisation/s.  This type of partnership is better described as a preliminary to an acquisition or merger.

The fact is that once established, the challenge for any partnership is twofold:

• to achieve the purpose for which the partnership has been established, and
• to maintain the partnership relationship through to a successful conclusion of the purpose.

 Maintaining a partnership relationship is even more time-consuming than establishing the relationship, and requires continual attention and care.  Key people may leave, participating organisations may experience difficulties or change direction, the partnership ‘project’ may not proceed as initially intended, resources may become scarce, or the initial vision and commitment may fade away. 

Jean’s Governance Kit No. 2: Partnership Relations

This Kit addresses the increasing practice in the nonprofit sector for independent and autonomous organisations choosing – or being required – to work closely with other independent and autonomous organisations to undertake a collaborative project.  The purpose of a partnership relationship can be different or additional to, but must be compatible with, the purpose of each party in the partnership.

 This Kit begins by defining a partnership relationship, and

• presents a 9-stage process for a nonprofit organisation to consider options for a partnership relationship,
• explains the importance of relevant policies, procedures, protocols and work practices to guide and protect the partnership, and
• presents a discussion worksheet for each of the nine Stages, to assist with internal discussion.

 Partnership relationships can be designed for short-term and long-term projects – often for a 3-5 year period.  Agreeing to form or join a partnership relationship is in itself a time-consuming activity.

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• to and from one person to another person
• to and from one person to a group
• to and from one group to another group

It involves listening, questioning, explaining, clarifying, encouraging, facilitating, challenging, convincing, verifying, comforting and supporting.

Messages can be conveyed or passed in writing, in conversation, by behaviour, by attitude, through personal values and preferences or by silence.

Communication is also the transmission of data from one machine to another:

However, communicating through technology requires exactly the same degree of care as any other form of communication in order to be effective.

Effective communication is the passing the right message or information:

• to the right person,
• in the right way,
• at the right time, and
• with the right effect, impact and outcome.

A note of caution:

• responsibility for effective communication always rests with the sender – not the recipient.

Why is face-to-face communication still – and ever – the most effective?

These three basic factors in face-to-face communication carry the following percentages of impact in terms of effectiveness:

• words                         7% of impact
• tone of voice          38% of impact
• body language       55% of impact

Therefore listening, questioning, explaining, clarifying, encouraging, facilitating, challenging, convincing, verifying, comforting and supporting must include the right words, the right tone of voice, and the right body language. Otherwise, chances of effectively communicating with another person or group of people are slim.

For instance, a request can be expertly analysed and prepared.  However, if the request is not effectively communicated to a person or group, then the desired result will not – and cannot – be achieved.

A further note of caution:

Communication through technology relies only on words, with only 7% chance of effectiveness!  Therefore great care is needed in selecting words that:

• convey the desired message,
• are appropriate to the desired recipient/s, and
• clearly indicate the ‘next action’, ie the desired response, action or impact.

Effective communication can prevent:

• misinterpretation or misunderstanding,
• problems, mistakes – even disasters,
• unwise decisions, and
• misuse or abuse of authority.

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A Policy is a statement of principles or standards of conduct which guide any decision making in relation to processes, activities and initiatives which happen, or are expected to happen, frequently.

Properly developed and communicated, policies ensure a consistent approach and value to all frequent processes, activities and initiatives.   Most importantly, policies must reflect the philosophy and purpose of the organisation.

The process of policy development is almost as important as the policies themselves.   Being such an important part of an organisation’s governance, management and operation, policy development should be closely linked with the procedures necessary to implement each policy – and should result in improved work practices.

Linking policies with improved work practices

1.      The governing body determines and endorses the strategic, policy and financial framework for the organisation.

2.     The appropriate organisational structure is introduced to support the purpose and strategic direction of the organisation.

3.       Authority is delegated from the Board to the CEO, and through the CEO to individual members of staff – adequate and appropriate to enable them to effectively and efficiently fulfil their relative accountabilities and responsibilities.

4.       A policy on policy-making is endorsed to ensure that all policies (governance, management and operational) are consistent in format, language and style.

5.      People affected by a policy should participate in the development of that policy.

6.     Each policy is then extended to a procedure, to ensure that it is appropriately and consistently followed.  Responsibilities for ensuring that procedures are followed are allocated to appropriate positions in the organisational structure and included in the relevant position descriptions.

7.     Each procedure is then examined to determine the nature and format of documentation needed to record adherence to, and effectiveness of, the procedure – or conversely the reason and circumstances in which the procedure is not followed.

8.       When this work is done, the policies, procedures, responsibilities and documentation are introduced and explained to relevant people through an appropriate training program.

9.       Policies and procedures are now in a position to be transformed into improved work practices, which is the objective and desired outcome of an evidence-based policy framework.

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There is a close relationship – but they can indeed be separated.

‘Management’ = achieving agreed objectives with and through people, involving:

• adequate time
• trialing and refining of ideas
• delegating the right tasks to the right people at the right time in the right way
• adequate, available and appropriate resources
• clear policies, procedures and workpractices that contribute to continuous quality improvement
• adequate and appropriate financial and administrative systems, tools – and competencies
• clear and open communication
• negotiation and supervision

‘Management’ is a combination of ensuring job satisfaction for staff, and meeting organisational demands

‘Leadership’ = ability to inspire other people to work together as a team, following your lead in order to attain a common objective, involving:

• interpersonal skills, including listening, questioning, observing, communicating
• willingness to learn as well as lead
• ability to relate effectively to a variety of behaviours, personalities, contexts and constraints
• commitment to building and maintaining relationships
• understanding the willingness, ability and commitment of ‘followers’ (you cannot be a leader if others are not prepared or willing to follow your lead)
• acceptance of limitations

‘Leadership’ is a combination of productivity and innovation

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• misinterpretation or misunderstanding may arise on key terms, concepts or practices,
• orientation and induction of new people at any of these levels is being planned,
• discussion gets ‘bogged down’ on details or differences – the process of agreeing on definitions can positively re-focus a discussion, or
• doubts arise as to implications of some options.

Here are seven definitions that relate to governance and management:

POLICY
A statement of principles or standards of conduct which guide any decision making in relation to processes, activities and initiatives which happen, or are expected to happen, frequently.  Properly developed and communicated, policies ensure a consistent approach and value to all frequent processes, activities and initiatives.  Most importantly, policies must reflect the philosophy and purpose of the organisation.

• the process of policy development is almost as important as the policies themselves.  Being such an important part of an organisation’s governance, management and operation, policy development should be closely linked with improved work practices.

PROCESS
A series of actions which produce a change or a development: the ‘how’ of governance, management and operation.

PROCEDURE
Detailed implementation guidelines, methods or instructions to be followed in specific circumstances, setting out who does what, in what manner, and in what sequence:

• procedures can be either mandatory or discretionary.

PRACTICE
A usual or customary action – the way in which something is actually happening or being done:

• quite often the practice differs from the written policy – this may be the result of ignorance, lack of skill or understanding, lack of commitment, a simple slip in standards or at worst a determined effort to render the written policies and procedures ineffective
• care needs to be taken that practices are aligned with policies and procedures, a major requirement in accreditation, performance, quality or risk audits.

PROTOCOL
Protocols explain the agreement upon which the delivery of particular services will be provided by Organisation A to Organisation B, or to the clients/service-users/customers of Organisation B:

• the purpose of protocols is to ensure a consistent quality and standard of procedure, so that a consistent and replicable quality of service delivery can be delivered.  Protocol agreements are a quality tool.

PLANNING
A detailed method of examining possibilities for action or direction, then choosing specific steps and stages to achieve the chosen action or direction:

• planning allows an organisation to become aware of future needs, opportunities and trends – and to avoid dangers and difficulties in achieving the purpose and goals of the organisation.

STRATEGIC PLANNING
The process of reducing ‘possible’ alternatives to selected and specific courses of action over a three to five year period, which are most likely to achieve and enrich the purpose for which the organisation exists.

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